Master Reference Library
Irregular Verbs Lexicon
168 verb entries across 6 morphological families, each with a practice workshop.
Family 1
The Invariant Verbs (A - A - A Pattern)
Verbs where the Base Form, Past Simple, and Past Participle remain strictly identical. A classic L1 transfer trap is appending erroneous -ed (e.g., *costed*, *cutted*, *putted*, *spreaded*).
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | 3rd Person (-s) | Continuous (-ing) | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bet | bet | bet | bets | betting | "I bet ten dollars on the final basketball match." |
| bid (auction) | bid | bid | bids | bidding | "He bid on the antique wooden desk yesterday." |
| broadcast | broadcast | broadcast | broadcasts | broadcasting | "The radio broadcast the storm alert at dawn." |
| burst | burst | burst | bursts | bursting | "The balloon burst when the child touched the cactus." |
| cast | cast | cast | casts | casting | "The fisherman cast his net into the lake." |
| cost | cost | cost | costs | costing | "These leather boots cost eighty dollars last week." |
| cut | cut | cut | cuts | cutting | "She cut the loaf of fresh bread with a sharp knife." |
| fit | fit (or fitted) | fit (or fitted) | fits | fitting | "The jacket fit him comfortably when he tried it on." |
| hit | hit | hit | hits | hitting | "The basketball hit the rim and bounced out." |
| hurt | hurt | hurt | hurts | hurting | "His shoulder hurt after training yesterday." |
| let | let | let | lets | letting | "My parents let us stay up late to watch the game." |
| put | put | put | puts | putting | "He put the car keys on the kitchen counter." |
| quit | quit | quit | quits | quitting | "She quit her job last month to return to university." |
| read (/riːd/) | read (/rɛd/) | read (/rɛd/) | reads | reading | "I read (/rɛd/) three chapters before going to bed." |
| reset | reset | reset | resets | resetting | "The technician reset the router early this morning." |
| set | set | set | sets | setting | "We set the alarm for 6:00 AM." |
| shed | shed | shed | sheds | shedding | "The dog shed a lot of fur on the living room rug." |
| shut | shut | shut | shuts | shutting | "A sudden gust of wind shut the bedroom window." |
| slit | slit | slit | slits | slitting | "He slit open the courier envelope with scissors." |
| split | split | split | splits | splitting | "We split the dinner bill equally between the four of us." |
| spread | spread | spread | spreads | spreading | "He spread homemade butter across the hot toast." |
| thrust | thrust | thrust | thrusts | thrusting | "He thrust his hands into his warm coat pockets." |
| upset | upset | upset | upsets | upsetting | "The canceled flight upset all our vacation plans." |
| wed | wed (or wedded) | wed (or wedded) | weds | wedding | "The couple wed in a small garden ceremony." |
Family 2
Past = Participle with Vowel & Suffix Mutation (A - B - B Pattern)
Verbs where the Past Simple and Past Participle share the identical mutated form, grouped by historical Germanic ablaut lineages and phonetic suffixation.
Group 2A: The "-ought" & "-aught" Group (/ɔːt/)
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Spelling Ending | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| bring | brought | brought | -ought (/ɔːt/) | "She brought fresh pastries to Sunday brunch." |
| buy | bought | bought | -ought (/ɔːt/) | "We bought fresh fruit at the neighborhood market." |
| catch | caught | caught | -aught (/ɔːt/) | "Leo caught the basketball with one hand." |
| fight | fought | fought | -ought (/ɔːt/) | "The team fought hard and won in the final quarter." |
| seek | sought | sought | -ought (/ɔːt/) | "They sought shelter under the awning during the downpour." |
| teach | taught | taught | -aught (/ɔːt/) | "Her grandmother taught her how to bake sourdough bread." |
| think | thought | thought | -ought (/ɔːt/) | "I thought the café was open until 10 PM." |
Group 2B: The "-t" Ending & Shortened Vowel Group
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Phonetic Shift | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| bend | bent | bent | d → t | "He bent over to tie his running shoes." |
| bleed | bled | bled | ee → e + d | "His knee bled slightly after scraping it on the court." |
| build | built | built | d → t | "They built a wooden deck in the backyard." |
| burn | burnt (or burned) | burnt (or burned) | -t / -ed | "I accidentally burnt the toast this morning." |
| creep | crept | crept | ee → e + t | "The cat crept quietly toward the open window." |
| deal | dealt (/dɛlt/) | dealt (/dɛlt/) | ea → e + t | "She dealt with the customer complaint politely." |
| dream | dreamt (/drɛmt/) | dreamt | ea → e + t | "He dreamt about his childhood home last night." |
| feel | felt | felt | ee → e + t | "I felt completely refreshed after a short nap." |
| flee | fled | fled | ee → e + d | "The deer fled into the forest when the car approached." |
| keep | kept | kept | ee → e + t | "He kept the old letters in a shoebox under the bed." |
| kneel | knelt (or kneeled) | knelt | ee → e + t | "He knelt down on the rug to pet the dog." |
| lay (place) | laid | laid | ay → aid | "She laid the sleeping baby in the crib." |
| lead | led (/lɛd/) | led (/lɛd/) | ea → e + d | "The trail guide led the hikers up the mountain path." |
| lean | leant (or leaned) | leant | ea → e + t | "He leaned his bicycle against the brick wall." |
| leap | leapt (/lɛpt/) | leapt | ea → e + t | "The dog leapt over the wooden garden gate." |
| learn | learned (or learned) | learned | -t / -ed | "She learned how to drive when she was eighteen." |
| leave | left | left | ea → e + t | "We left home early to beat the morning traffic." |
| lend | lent | lent | d → t | "My brother lent me his car for the weekend." |
| light | lit (or lighted) | lit (or lighted) | igh → i + t | "We lit candles when the power went out during the storm." |
| lose | lost | lost | o → o + t | "I lost my car keys at the supermarket." |
| mean | meant (/mɛnt/) | meant (/mɛnt/) | ea → e + t | "I didn't understand what he meant by that comment." |
| meet | met | met | ee → e + t | "They met at the coffee shop to study for exams." |
| pay | paid | paid | ay → aid | "He paid for our lunch with a twenty-dollar bill." |
| say | said (/sɛd/) | said (/sɛd/) | ay → aid | "What did she say when you answered the phone?" |
| send | sent | sent | d → t | "I sent an email with the attached document." |
| sleep | slept | slept | ee → e + t | "The children slept soundly through the night." |
| smell | smelt (or smelled) | smelt | -t / -ed | "The kitchen smelt of freshly brewed coffee." |
| spend | spent | spent | d → t | "We spent Saturday afternoon hiking in the hills." |
| spill | spilt (or spilled) | spilt | -t / -ed | "He accidentally spilt milk on the kitchen floor." |
| sweep | swept | swept | ee → e + t | "She swept the fall leaves off the front porch." |
| weep | wept | wept | ee → e + t | "She wept with joy when she heard the good news." |
Group 2C: The "-ound", "-ung", "-uck", & Internal Vowel Shift Group
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Phonetic Shift | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| bind | bound | bound | i → ou | "The old book was bound in dark green leather." |
| bleed | bled | bled | ee → e | "The cut on his arm bled for a few minutes." |
| cling | clung | clung | i → u | "The wet shirt clung to his back after the run." |
| dig | dug | dug | i → u | "The dog dug a hole in the backyard under the tree." |
| feed | fed | fed | ee → e | "Have you fed the cat this morning?" |
| find | found | found | i → ou | "I found an old photograph inside the drawer." |
| grind | ground | ground | i → ou | "He ground fresh coffee beans for breakfast." |
| hang (suspend) | hung | hung | a → u | "We hung the family portrait on the living room wall." |
| hear | heard (/hɜːrd/) | heard (/hɜːrd/) | ear → eard | "Did you hear the thunderstorm last night?" |
| hold | held | held | o → e | "She held the baby gently in her arms." |
| shine | shone (/ʃɒn/) | shone | i → o | "The morning sun shone through the blinds." |
| shoot | shot | shot | oo → o | "He shot a three-pointer in the final seconds of the game." |
| sit | sat | sat | i → a | "We sat on the porch and drank lemonade." |
| slide | slid | slid | i → i (short) | "The glass slid off the wet table and broke." |
| sling | slung | slung | i → u | "He slung his sports bag over his shoulder." |
| slink | slunk | slunk | i → u | "The cat slunk out of the room when the dog barked." |
| speed | sped (or speeded) | sped | ee → e | "The ambulance sped down the avenue with sirens on." |
| spin | spun | spun | i → u | "The basketball spun on his fingertip." |
| spit | spat (or spit) | spat | i → a | "He spat out the bitter melon immediately." |
| stand | stood (/stʊd/) | stood (/stʊd/) | an → oo | "We stood in line for thirty minutes outside the bakery." |
| stick | stuck | stuck | i → u | "The car wheels got stuck in the mud on the dirt road." |
| sting | stung | stung | i → u | "A wasp stung him on the forearm while he was gardening." |
| strike | struck | struck | i → u | "Lightning struck the tall pine tree in the park." |
| string | strung | strung | i → u | "He strung holiday lights across the front porch." |
| swing | swung | swung | i → u | "The children swung on the swings at the playground." |
| tell | told | told | ell → old | "My grandfather told us wonderful stories around the table." |
| understand | understood | understood | an → oo | "Everyone understood the directions without difficulty." |
| win | won (/wʌn/) | won (/wʌn/) | i → o | "Our neighborhood basketball team won the tournament." |
| wind (/waɪnd/) | wound (/waʊnd/) | wound (/waʊnd/) | i → ou | "The mountain road wound through steep valleys." |
| wring | wrung | wrung | i → u | "She wrung out the wet towel before hanging it up." |
Family 3
The Three Distinct Forms (A - B - C Pattern)
Verbs where Base Form, Past Simple, and Past Participle diverge completely, featuring ablaut progressions and participial endings in -en or -n.
Group 3A: The "i a u" Vowel Shift Group
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Ablaut Progression | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| begin | began | begun | i → a u | "The rain began at 4:00 PM, but the sun has begun to shine again." |
| drink | drank | drunk | i → a u | "He drank a tall glass of cold water after training." |
| ring | rang | rung | i → a u | "The doorbell rang twice while we were in the kitchen." |
| shrink | shrank | shrunk | i → a u | "My favorite wool sweater shrank in the hot wash." |
| sing | sang | sung | i → a u | "The children sang folk songs around the campfire." |
| sink | sank | sunk | i → a u | "The toy boat sank to the bottom of the pond." |
| spring | sprang | sprung | i → a u | "The dog sprang up onto the couch to greet me." |
| stink | stank | stunk | i → a u | "The leftover food stank after sitting out all night." |
| swim | swam | swum | i → a u | "We swam in the lake every afternoon during summer." |
Group 3B: The "-ow / -aw / -y -ew -own / -awn" Group
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Phonetic Progression | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| blow | blew (/bluː/) | blown | ow → ew → own | "A strong breeze blew the dry leaves across the driveway." |
| draw | drew (/druː/) | drawn | aw → ew → awn | "She drew a pencil portrait of her grandmother." |
| fly | flew (/fluː/) | flown | y → ew → own | "The flock of wild geese flew south for the winter." |
| grow | grew (/ɡruː/) | grown | ow → ew → own | "They grew organic tomatoes and basil in their garden." |
| know | knew (/nuː/) | known | ow → ew → own | "I knew Carlos when we were in high school." |
| throw | threw (/θruː/) | thrown | ow → ew → own | "He threw the ball for his dog in the park." |
| withdraw | withdrew | withdrawn | aw → ew → awn | "He withdrew fifty dollars from the cash machine." |
Group 3C: The "-en / -n" Participle Suffix Group
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Participle Vowel | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| arise | arose | arisen (/əˈrɪz.ən/) | i (short) | "Several unexpected questions arose during dinner." |
| bite | bit | bitten (/ˈbɪt.ən/) | i (short) | "The playful puppy bit the leather shoe." |
| break | broke | broken | o (long) | "Who broke the ceramic mug in the sink?" |
| choose | chose | chosen | o (long) | "We chose the quiet corner table near the window." |
| drive | drove | driven (/ˈdrɪv.ən/) | i (short) | "We drove through the mountains on our road trip." |
| eat | ate (/eɪt/) | eaten (/ˈiː.tən/) | ea (long) | "Have you eaten lunch yet, or are you hungry?" |
| fall | fell | fallen | a (broad) | "Golden leaves fell onto the garden path." |
| forbid | forbade (/fərˈbæd/) | forbidden | i (short) | "My parents forbade us from playing near the river." |
| forget | forgot | forgotten | o (short) | "I have forgotten where I placed my reading glasses." |
| forgive | forgave | forgiven | i (short) | "She immediately forgave her brother for breaking the cup." |
| freeze | froze | frozen | o (long) | "The surface of the lake froze completely last January." |
| give | gave | given | i (short) | "My father gave me his vintage wristwatch." |
| hide | hid | hidden (/ˈhɪd.ən/) | i (short) | "He hid the surprise birthday present in the closet." |
| mistake | mistook | mistaken | a (long) | "I mistook him for his twin brother at the supermarket." |
| ride | rode | ridden (/ˈrɪd.ən/) | i (short) | "Have you ever ridden a horse on a country trail?" |
| rise | rose | risen (/ˈrɪz.ən/) | i (short) | "The morning sun rose over the rolling hills." |
| see | saw (/sɔː/) | seen | ee (long) | "Did you see the full moon in the clear night sky?" |
| shake | shook (/ʃʊk/) | shaken | a (long) | "He shook my hand warmly when we were introduced." |
| speak | spoke | spoken | o (long) | "Have you spoken with your sister today?" |
| steal | stole | stolen | o (long) | "Someone stole his bicycle from the front porch." |
| stride | strode | stridden | i (short) | "He strode confidently across the room." |
| swear | swore | sworn | o (long) | "He swore that he had locked the front door." |
| take | took (/tʊk/) | taken | a (long) | "He took his dog for a long walk in the woods." |
| tear | tore | torn | o (long) | "She accidentally tore a page in the old cookbook." |
| wake | woke | woken | o (long) | "The morning alarm woke me up at 6:30 AM." |
| wear | wore | worn | o (long) | "He wore his warm winter sweater to the cabin." |
| weave | wove | woven | o (long) | "The artisan wove a beautiful colorful blanket." |
| write | wrote | written (/ˈrɪt.ən/) | i (short) | "She has written three personal letters this week." |
Family 4
The Return Loop Verbs (A - B - A Pattern)
Verbs whose Past Participle returns to the exact form of the Base Infinitive, while the Past Simple adopts an internal vowel change.
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Ablaut Shift | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| become | became | become | o → a o | "He became interested in cooking after watching his mother bake." |
| come | came | come | o → a o | "Our friends came over for dinner on Saturday evening." |
| overcome | overcame | overcome | o → a o | "She overcame her fear of speaking in public." |
| run | ran | run | u → a u | "He ran five miles around the park track at dawn." |
Family 5
Dual Regular & Irregular Hybrids (British vs. American Usage)
Verbs that have both an irregular inflected form (often ending in -t) and a regular -ed form.
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Usage Note | Everyday Context Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| awake | awoke (or awaked) | awoken (or awaked) | awoke is standard | "I awoke to the sound of birds singing outside." |
| burn | burned / burnt | burned / burnt | burnt common in UK | "The campfire burned brightly into the night." |
| clothe | clothed / clad | clothed / clad | clad is poetic/literary | "The trees were clad in the fall gold." |
| dive | dived / dove (US) | dived | dove standard in US | "The swimmer dove into the cool pool water." |
| dream | dreamed / dreamt | dreamed / dreamt | dreamt pronounced /drɛmt/ | "I dreamt that I could fly over the city." |
| fit | fit (US) / fitted (UK) | fit / fitted | fit invariant in US | "The shoes fit him comfortably." |
| hang (execute) | hanged | hanged | Regular for execution | "The criminal was hanged for his crimes." |
| kneel | knelt / kneeled | knelt / kneeled | knelt common in UK | "He knelt down to inspect the garden soil." |
| knit | knitted / knit | knitted / knit | both widely used | "My grandmother knitted a warm wool scarf." |
| lean | leaned / leant | leaned / leant | leant pronounced /lɛnt/ | "He leaned his head against the bus window." |
| leap | leaped / leapt | leaped / leapt | leapt pronounced /lɛpt/ | "The cat leapt up onto the bookshelf." |
| learn | learned / learned | learned / learned | learnt common in UK | "We learned a lot during yesterday's class." |
| light | lit / lighted | lit / lighted | lit is predominant | "She lit a warm scented candle in the room." |
| prove | proved | proved / proven (US) | proven widely used as adj. | "The new technique has proven very effective." |
| sew | sewed | sewn / sewed | sewn preferred for participle | "She has sewn a colorful patch onto her jeans." |
| shine (polish) | shined | shined | Regular for polishing | "He shined his leather boots before the event." |
| show | showed | shown / showed | shown preferred for participle | "He has shown great dedication to his training." |
| smell | smelled / smelt | smelled / smelt | smelt common in UK | "The hot apple pie smelled delicious." |
| sow (seeds) | sowed | sown / sowed | sown preferred for participle | "The gardener sowed flower seeds in the spring." |
| speed | sped / speeded | sped / speeded | speeded up for acceleration | "The train sped past the small station." |
| spell | spelled / spelled | spelled / spelled | spelt common in UK | "How is your last name spelled?" |
| spill | spilled / spilt | spilled / spilt | spilt common in UK | "Don't cry over spilt milk (proverb)." |
| spoil | spoiled / spoilt | spoiled / spoilt | spoilt child (UK) | "The heavy rain spoiled our Sunday picnic." |
| wake | woke / waked | woken / waked | woke / woken predominant | "I woke up feeling completely energized." |
Family 6
Total Suppletion & Primary Auxiliary Irregulars
Verbs whose forms stem from distinct morphological roots (suppletion). These represent the most high-frequency grammatical structures in the language.
| Base Form | Past Simple | Past Participle | Present / Continuous Forms | Everyday Context Models |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| be | was (I/he/she/it) were (we/you/they) | been | am / is / are being | "We were at the beach all afternoon." "Have you ever been to Canada?" |
| do | did | done | do / does doing | "He did all his chores before lunch." "Have you done the laundry yet?" |
| go | went | gone / been | go / goes going | "He has gone to the store (he is still there)." "He has been to Rome (he has returned)." |
| have | had | had | have / has having | "We had a delicious family dinner together." "She has had a cold all week." |